| Abstract |
The United Nations highlighted that over 3 billion people worldwide are at risk because the health of their freshwater ecosystems is unknown as they are not monitored regularly UN-Water (2021). In Namibia, more than half of the rural communities in the northern part of Namibia Cuvelai- Etosha Basin (CEB) depend on groundwater as a primary source of domestic water supply and livestock watering (Hamutoko, 2018). Even though most of the population access groundwater with properly constructed boreholes, there is still a significant number of communities that rely on hand-dug wells. Although these hand-dug wells often have visible debris floating in them, they are nevertheless utilized as drinking water without treatment when there is no alternative source of water. Neither the water quality in these hand-dug wells nor the quantity of water resources in these shallow aquifers that are accessed by hand-dug wells are assessed or monitored. Therefore, groundwater in these aquifers faces pollution, both natural i.e. fluoride and TDS, and anthropogenic for example fertilizers, pesticides, as well as effluents from cattle farming and domestic activities. The lack of a developed water supply system together with the lack of sanitation or waste-water treatment systems in rural areas are also among the factors that increase the risk of water-borne infection. Additionally, the design of hand-dug wells (i.e. unprotected, no lid cover) and human activities around the hand-dug wells (i.e. troughs placed beside the well), have a significant influence on the quality of the groundwater (Figure 2). Water in the hand-dug wells may harbour microorganisms such as viruses, bacteria, fungi, and protozoa which may be pathogenic and induce diseases leading to death in severe cases. In some cases, community members who cannot afford monthly contributions for maintenance and diesel of the boreholes tend to use hand-dug wells even though boreholes exist in their close proximity. |
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